Education (for extra credits)

Education

 Education is a social institution that sociologists are very interested in studying. This includes teaching formal knowledge such as reading, writing, and speaking, as well as teaching other things such as morals, values, and ethics. Education makes young people for adjusting to society and is a form of socialization. Sociologists want to know how this form of socialization affects and is affected by other social structures, experiences, and outcomes.

 

Sociology of education is a field that focuses on two separate levels of analysis. At a macro-level, sociologists work to identify how various social forces, such as entertainments, culture, politics, etc, creates variation in schools. In other words, what effects do other social institutions have on the educational system? At a micro-level, sociologists look to identify how variation in school practices lead to differences in individual-level student outcomes. That is, when schools have different teaching methods or have different practices, how does that affect the individual students and what are the individual outcomes? I

Causes of terrorism (for extra credits)

Causes of terrorism

  

There Are Two Causes of Terrorism

All terrorist acts are motivated by two things:

•Social and political injustice: People choose terrorism when they are trying to right what they perceive to be a social or political or historical wrong—when they have been stripped of their land or rights, or denied these.

•The belief that violence or its threat will be effective, and usher in change. Another way of saying this is: the belief that violent means justify the ends. Many terrorists in history said sincerely that they chose violence after long deliberation, because they felt they had no choice.

This explanation of the causes of terrorism may be difficult to swallow. It sounds too simple, or too theoretical. However, if you look at any group that is widely understood as a terrorist group, you will find these two elements are basic to their story.

•Zionists who bombed British targets in 1930s mandate Palestine felt they must do so in order to create a Jewish state.

• The IRA (Irish Republican Army) bombed English targets in the 1980s to make the point that they felt their land was colonized by British imperialists.

•In the 1960s and 1970s, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine felt that armed attacks in Israel were a justifiable response to the usurpation of their land.

• Osama bin Laden's declaration of war on American interests in the 1990s stemmed from his belief that U.S. troops stationed in Saudi Arabia represented an abomination to the kind of Islamic state he believed should exist in the Arabian peninsula.

• Uighur separatists in China today feel that Chinese religious repression (the Uighur Chinese are Muslims) justifies their terrorist tactics.

• In some cases, people choose terrorist tactics based on a cause whose righteousness they believe in to the exclusion of nearly all else. Abortion clinic bombers in the 1990s and groups such as the Animal Liberation Front believe zealously in their causes.

People who choose terrorist tactics are also persuaded that violence, or the threat of violence, is effective. There is some question about who actually 'chooses' terrorism, and it may be unfair to think of young recruits, such as some suicide bombers today, who are seduced by cult-like methods of indoctrination as completely culpable for their choices.

Social media platforms (for extra credits)

Social media platforms

 Take a moment and honestly think about the time you have spent on your social media accounts this week. Include them all: Facebook, Twitter, Naver, Google+, YouTube.... Some of these sites have become a natural part of our daily browsing.

 In all likelihood, someone who manages an e-commerce website has at least given a thought to using these sites to further their business objectives. As an e-commerce professional, maybe you have tried, and are struggling on several of them. But you keep plugging on, utilizing every feature of every site you have signed up for. And there seem to be no results.

 There is a secret that social media marketers have been surprisingly lax in sharing: you should only focus on one social platform. Not in the long term, of course, but in the beginning. You create and work on a single profile. When you have an active following, and have found some success, you take the next step and create your identity on a different site, following the same process.

Turing test (for extra credits)

Turing test

 Computer intelligence systems are becoming ever more sophisticated, and are able to perform complex, worldly tasks that were previously only available to humans. One example of this is Google’s self driving car. But as systems like these progress, how will we know the current state of artificial intelligence. One potential indicator was put forward by legendary computer scientist Alan Turing.

 The Turing Test states that a computer attached to a teletype (a tool of Turing’s era) should be able to conduct a conversation with a human, and the human should not be able to determine whether the agent they are communicating with is a computer or another human. Effectively the computer should be able to conduct a text based conversation with a person as well as a human being could.

 The Turing Test became a famous concept in the world of computer science, as an operational definition of intelligence in computers that could easily be measured. The concept was further refined in the field to include the notion of a “total Turing Test,” in which the conversation is conducted over video. Not only would this require the computer to respond to visual cues in the interrogator, but it would require the computer to manipulate physical objects that may be passed “through the hatch” to it.

Social inequality (for extra credits)

Social Inequality

 Sociologists see society as a stratification system that is based on a hierarchy of power (the ability to direct someone else’s behavior), privilege (honor and respect), and prestige (income, wealth, and property), which leads to patterns of social inequality. Inequality is about who gets what, how they get it, and why they get it. Social inequality is typically tied to race, gender, and class, with whites, males, those with higher education levels, and those with higher income levels sitting at the top of the hierarchy.

 Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments. There are two main ways to measure social inequality: inequality of conditions, and inequality of opportunities. Inequality of conditions refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth and material goods. Housing, for example, is an inequality of conditions with the homeless and those living in housing projects sitting at the bottom of the hierarchy while those living in multi-million dollar mansions sitting at the top.

 Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of "life chances" across individuals. This is reflected in measures such as level of education, health status, and treatment by the criminal justice system.

Big data (for extra credits)

Big data

 The term big data is a catchall phrase that is used to refer to three aspects of the same phenomenon: 1) the vast amount of continually streaming digital information that characterizes much of modern day life; 2) the exponential increases in massive data storage capacity, and 3) the data processing power required to aggregate, analyze, manage, and interpret large volumes of digital information.
 Technology companies and entrepreneurial start-ups are frenetically looking for ways to construct the fastest algorithms for data analysis, or create the most reliable tools for accurate data extraction, or to build the biggest database. The database management industry is seeing another spin-off: businesses that enable companies to most effectively apply the best information that technology can offer. These two industry thrusts - great technology and effective use of the massive body of data – are regarded as the foundation of business use of big data. 

Direct Observation (for extra credits)

Direct Observation

 There are many different kinds of field research in which researchers can take any number of roles. They can participate in the settings and situations they wish to study or they can simply observe without participating; they can immerse themselves in the setting and live among those being studied or they can come and go from the setting for short periods of time; they can go "undercover" and not disclose their real purpose for being there or they can disclose their research agenda to those in the setting. This article discusses direct observation with no participation.

Being a complete observer means studying a social process without becoming a part of it in any way. It is possible that, because of the researcher’s low profile, the subjects of the study might not even realize that they are being studied. For example, if you were sitting at a bus stop and observing jaywalkers at a nearby intersection, people would likely not notice you watching them. Or if you were sitting on a bench at a local park observing the behavior of a group of young men playing hacky sack, they probably would not suspect you were studying them.

 Fred Davis, a sociologist who taught at the University of California, San Diego, characterized this role of complete observer as "the Martian." Imagine you were sent to observe some newfound life on Mars. You would likely feel obviously separate and different from the Martians. This is how some social scientists feel when they observe cultures and social groups that are different from their own. It is easier and more comfortable to sit back, observe, and not interact with anyone when you are "the Martian."

 In choosing between direct observation, participant observation, immersion, or any form of field research in between, the choice ultimately comes down to the research situation. Different situations require different roles for the researcher. While one setting might call for direct observation, another might be better with immersion. There are no clear guidelines for making the choice on which method to use. The researcher must rely on his or her own understanding of the situation and use his or her own judgment. Methodological and ethical considerations must also come into play as a part of the decision. These things can often conflict, so the decision might be a difficult one and the researcher could find that his or her role limits the study.

Bullying (for extra credits)

Bullying

 Bullying is intentional aggressive behavior. It can take the form of physical or verbal harassment and involves an imbalance of power (a group of children can gang up on a victim or someone who is physically bigger or more aggressive can intimidate someone else, for instance).

 Bullying behavior can include teasing, insulting someone (particularly about their weight or height, race, sexuality, religion or other personal traits), shoving, hitting, excluding someone, or gossiping about someone.

 Bullying can cause a victim to feel upset, afraid, ashamed, embarrassed, and anxious about going to school. It can involve children of any age, including younger elementary grade-schoolers and even kindergarteners. Bullying behavior is frequently repeated unless there is intervention.

 Therefore, I think educators should prepare measures for bullying and students also realize bullying must be stopped.

Demography

Demography

 Demography is the statistical study of human populations. It includes the study of the size, structure, and distributions of different populations and changes in them in response to birth, migration, aging, and death. It also includes the analysis of the relationships between economic, social, cultural, and biological process influencing a population. The field of sociology draws on huge bodies of data generated by a variety of sources, including the U.S. Census Bureau.

  It is widely used for various purposes and can encompass small, targeted populations or mass populations. Governments use demography for political observations, scientists use demography for research purposes, and businesses use demography for the purpose of advertising.

 Statistical concepts essential to demography include birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate, fertility rate, and life expectancy. These concepts can be further broken down into more specific data, such as the ratio of men to women and the life expectancy of each gender. A census helps provide much of this information, in addition to vital statistic records. In some studies, the demography of an area is expanded to include education, income, the structure of the family unit, housing, race or ethnicity, and religion. The information gathered and studied for a demographic overview of a population depends on the party utilizing the information.

 I think from the census and vital statistics gathered using a wide variety of sources, sociologists can create a picture of the U.S. population – who we are, how we are changing, and even who we will be in the future.

Modernization Theory (for extra credits)

Modernization Theory

 Modernization theory emerged in the 1950's as an explanation of how the industrial societies of North America and Western Europe developed. The theory argues that societies develop in fairly predictable stages though which they become increasingly complex. Development depends primarily on the importation of technology as well as a number of other political and social changes believed to come about as a result. For example, modernization involves increased levels of schooling and the development of mass media, both of which foster democratic political institutions. Transportation and communication become increasingly sophisticated and accessible, populations become more urban and mobile, and the extended family declines in importance as a result. Organizations become bureaucratic as the division of labor grows more complex and religion declines in public influence. Lastly, cash-driven markets take over as the primary mechanism through which goods and services are exchanged.

Attachment theory (for extra credits)

Attachment theory

 Attachment theory is focused on the relationships and bonds between people, particularly long-term relationships including those between a parent and child and between romantic partners.

 Attachment is an emotional bond to another person. Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist, describing attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings." He believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. He suggested attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.

 The central theme of attachment theory is that primary caregivers who are available and responsive to an infant's needs allow the child to develop a sense of security. The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world.

Interactionist Perspective (for extra credits)

Interactionist Perspective

 The interactionist perspective is one of the major theoretical perspectives within sociology. It focuses on the concrete details of what goes on among individuals in everyday life. Interactionists study how we use and interpret symbols not only to communicate with each other, but also to create and maintain impressions of ourselves, to create a sense of self, and to create and sustain what we experience as the reality of a particular social situation. From this perspective, social life consists largely of a complex fabric woven of countless interactions through which life takes on shape and meaning.

Sociobiology (for extra credits)

Sociobiology

 While the term sociobiology can be traced to the 1940s, the concept of sociobiology first gained major recognition with Edward O. Wilson’s 1975 publication Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. In it, he introduced the concept of sociobiology as the application of evolutionary theory to social behavior.

Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors are at lease partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection. It begins with the idea that behaviors have evolved over time, similar to the way that physical traits are thought to have evolved. Animals will therefore act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time, which can result in the formation of complex social processes, among other things.

 According to sociobiologists, many social behaviors have been shaped by natural selection. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patters, territorial fights, and pack hunting. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it also led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one’s genes in the population and certain genes or gene combinations are thought to influence particular behavioral traits from generation to generation.

 Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection explains that traits less adapted to particular conditions of life will not endure in a population because organisms with those traits tend to have lower rates of survival and reproduction. Sociobiologists model the evolution of human behaviors in much the same way, using various behaviors as the relevant traits. In addition, they add several other theoretical components to their theory.

 Sociobiologists believe that evolution includes not just genes, but also psychological, social, and cultural features. When humans reproduce, offspring inherit the genes of their parents, and when parents and children share genetic, developmental, physical, and social environments, the children inherit the gene-effects of their parents. Sociobiologists also believe that the different rates of reproductive success are related to different levels of wealth, social status, and power within that culture.

Glass Ceiling (for extra credits)

Glass Ceiling

 The phrase “glass ceiling” refers to an invisible barrier that prevents someone from achieving further success. It is most often heard in the context of women who cannot advance to the highest levels of power in the workplace. The glass ceiling is a way of describing whatever keeps women from achieving power and success equal to that of men.

 The metaphor comments on an employee’s rise up the ranks of a hierarchical organization. Workers climb higher as they get promotions, pay raises, and other opportunities. In theory, nothing prevents women from rising as high as men. After the Women’s Liberation Movement and Civil Rights legislation of the 1960s, many people feel that discrimination is all in the past. However, in practice, there are still barriers.

 A ceiling made of glass would be see-through. A woman can clearly see those above her who are more powerful. Instead of being able to achieve the same success, she is stopped by invisible forces that prevent her from rising further.

Consumption (for extra credits)

Consumption

 In the simplest sense of the word, consumption refers to the taking in or using up of resources. Simply breathing air or drinking a glass of water are forms of consumption, and in this sense, we need to consume to survive. However, over time, the scope of human consumption, and the range of things we consume, have expanded greatly, and now far exceed meeting the needs of survival. We consume not only goods, but also services, experiences, information, and cultural products like art, music, film, and television. Thus, sociologists understand consumption to be not simply something we do to survive, but a central organizing principle of social life that shapes our our everyday lives, and our experience of the world. It structures and mediates the relationships we have with others, and it serves as a form of expression for both individual and group identities.
 Sociologists also see consumption as an important part of the process of forming and expressing both individual and group identities. In Subculture: The Meaning of Style, sociologist Dick Hebdige observed that identity is often expressed through fashion choices, which allows us to classify people as hipsters, punks, preppies, or emo, for example. This happens because we choose consumer goods that we feel say something about ourselves, about our values and lifestyle, and importantly, about who we want to be.

 Because we associate certain values, identities, and lifestyles with consumer goods, sociologists recognize that some troubling implications follow the centrality of consumption to social life. We often make assumptions, without even realizing it, about a person’s character, social standing, values and beliefs, or even their intelligence, based on how we interpret their consumption practices. Because of this, consumption can serve processes of exclusion and marginalization in society, and can lead to conflict across lines of class, race, culture, sexuality, religion, and nationality.

What is a crime (for extra credits)

Crime

 A crime occurs when someone breaks the law by an overt act, omission or neglect that can result in punishment. A person who has violated a law, or has breached a rule, is said to have committed a criminal offense. There are two main categories of crime: property crime and violent crime.
 Property Crimes: A property crime is committed when someone damages, destroys or steals someone else's property, such as stealing a car or vandalizing a building. Property crimes are by far the most commonly committed crime in the United States.

 Violent Crimes: A violent crime occurs when someone harms, attempts to harm, threatens to harm or even conspires to harm someone else. Violent crimes are offenses which involve force or threat of force, such as rape, robbery or homicide.

 Some crimes can be both property crimes and violent at the same time, for example carjacking someone's vehicle at gunpoint or robbing a convenience store with a handgun.

Intersex (for extra credits)

Intersex

 Intersex refers to people who do not have typical male or female physical characteristics. The term intersex is used to describe people who are born with unusual sexual anatomy, rather than people who have changed their sexual anatomy through surgery or other treatment, who are typically referred to as transexual.
 There is a wide variation in the extent to which people are affected by intersex, as well as the degree to which intersex characteristics are problematic for them. Obviously, social acceptance plays a major role in how negatively having intersex characteristics affects people. Because medical professionals are not consistently well trained in understanding intersex issues, they do not always provide the best advice for the parents of a newborn with intersex characteristics.

Pop culture (for extra credits)

Popular Culture

 Popular culture is the accumulated store of cultural products such as music, art, literature, fashion, dance, film, television, and radio that are consumed primarily by non-elite groups such as the working, lower, and middle class. There are two opposing sociological arguments in relation to popular culture. One argument is that popular culture is used by the elites (who tend to control the mass media and popular culture outlets) to control those below them because it dulls people's minds, making them passive and easy to control. A second argument is just the opposite, that popular culture is a vehicle for rebellion against the culture of dominant groups.

 

Intersectionality (for extra credits)

Intersectionality

 Intersectionality refers to the simultaneous experience of categorical and hierarchical classifications including but not limited to race, class, gender, sexuality, and nationality. It also refers to the fact that what are often perceived as disparate forms of oppression, like racism, classism, sexism, and xenophobia, are actually mutually dependent and intersecting in nature, and together they compose a unified system of oppression. Thus, the privileges we enjoy and the discrimination we face, are typically facilitated by our unique positionality in society as determined by these classifiers.

Symbolic Interaction Theory (for extra credits)

Symbolic Interaction Theory

 The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George Herbert Mead introduced this perspective to American sociology in the 1920s.

 Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believe that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation. People interpret one another’s behavior and it is these interpretations that form the social bond. These interpretations are called the "definition of the situation." For example, why would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective medical evidence points to the dangers of doing so? The answer is in the definition of the situation that people create. Studies find that teenagers are well informed about the risks of tobacco, but they also think that smoking is cool, that they themselves will be safe from harm, and that smoking projects a positive image to their peers. So, the symbolic meaning of smoking overrides that actual facts regarding smoking and risk. 

 Critics of this theory claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of social interpretation—the “big picture.” In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely on the “trees” rather than the “forest”. The perspective also receives criticism for slighting the influence of social forces and institutions on individual interactions